Toxic Effects of Environmental Heavy Metals on Cardiovascular Pathophysiology and Heart Health Function: Chelation Therapeutics
Keywords:
Heavy metals, Cardiovascular disease, Oxidative stress, EDTA, Curcumin chelationAbstract
The mobilization of heavy metals by man through extraction from ores and processing for different applications has led to the release of these elements into the environment. Since heavy metals are non-biodegradable, they accumulate in the environment and subsequently contaminate the food chain. This contamination poses a risk to environmental and human health. Heavy metals are strongly implicated in atherosclerotic heart disease. There is many evidence supporting toxic xenobiotic heavy metals as an emerging cardiovascular risk factor. In this review, we will summarize the evidence for the four toxic xenobiotic heavy metals such as lead, cadmium, mercury and arsenic that are chelated most effectively by edentate (EDTA) disodium and that have convincing published reports documenting their cardiovascular toxicity ranked priority, as environmental chemicals of concern by the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry. The metabolic effects of heavy metals and hypothetical mechanisms of metal toxicity are discussed. Standard therapies involving treatment with EDTA and curcumin as chelating agent for heavy metals are given. EDTA normalizes the distribution of most metallic elements in the body. There is a relationship between heavy metals to the blood pressure and cholesterol level as a risk factor of myocardial infraction, coronary or cardiovascular disease. Xenobiotic heavy metals (Pb, As, Hg and Cd deplete glutathione and protein-bound sulfhydryl groups, resulting in the production of reactive oxygen species as superoxide ion, hydrogen peroxide and hydroxyl radical (O2.-, H2O2, .OH, OH-), consequence, enhanced lipid peroxidation and DNA damage. Curcumin reduces the toxicity induced by xenobiotic heavy metals due to its scavenging and chelating properties. The genetic mechanisms through which heavy metals act to increase cardiovascular disease CVD may act still remains unknown. However, additional research is needed in order to propose the exact mechanism of CVD induced by heavy metals.
Downloads
References
Madkour LH. Thermodynamic studies on sulfate roasting for zinc electro winning from carbonate ore. Journal of Chemical Technology & Biotechnology 1985; 36(5): 197-211.
Madkour LH. Recommended flow sheets for the electrolytic extraction of lead and zinc from Red-Sea polymetal ore. Journal of Chemical Technology & Biotechnology 1985; 35(3): 108-1 14.
Madkour LH. Electrolytic separation of lead and its dioxide from carbonate ore residuum. Indian Journal of Chemical Technology 1995; 2(6): 343.
Madkour LH. Electrodeposition of lead and its dioxide from Egyptian carbonate ore residuum, Bulletin of electrochemistry 1996; 12(3-4): 234.
Afifi SE, Tah F, Madkour LH. Electrolytic Deposition of Metal Values from Umm - Samiuki Poly sulphide Ore. (I) Flow sheets for the Assessment of Copper, Lead and Zinc. Egyptian Journal of Chemistry 1984; 27(3): 275-282.
Afifi SE, Taha F, Madkour LH. Electrolytic Deposition of Metal Values from Umm - Samiuki Poly sulphide Ore. (II) On the Optimum Conditions and Efficiency of Separation Processes.Egyptian Journal of Chemistry 1984; 27(3): 283-296.
Taha F, Afifi SE, Madkour LH. Treatment of Umm - Samiuki Complex. Journal ofTabbin Institute for Metallurgical Studies 1982; 47: 1-19.
Madkour LH. Thermodynamic behaviour of complex antimonite ore for electrodeposition of metal value.Journal de Chimie Physique et de Physico-Chimie Biologique 1997; 94: 620-634.
Madkour LH, Salem IA. Electrolytic recovery of antimony from natural stibnite ore, Hydrometallurgy 1996; 43(1-2):265-275.
Madkour LH. Hydro-and electrometallurgical treatment of cassiterites (greater than SnO2) concentrate. Aufbereitungs-Technik 1988; 29(5): 273-281.
Fouda AS, Madkour LH. Electrodeposition of tin from tinstone ore. Bulletin de la Societe Chimique de France 1986; 4: 504-506.
Madkour LH. Fouda AS. Electrodeposition of titanium and its dioxide from ilmenite.Journal of Electroanalytical Chemistry 1986; 199(1): 207-210.
Fouda AS, Madkour LH, Ahmed AI. Electrodeposition of indium, Bulletin de la Societe Chimique de France no. 2 1987; 18(24): 270-272.
Madkour LH. Electrolytic extraction of uranium from Egyptian phosphorites. Erzmetall 1995; 48(2): 104-109.
Gervasio AL, Ana Navas-Acien, Daniel BM, Kerry LL. Heavy Metals, Cardiovascular Disease, and the Unexpected Benefits of Chelation Therapy. Journal of the American College of Cardiology 2016; 67(20): 2411-8.
Solenkova NV, Newman JD, Berger JS. Metal pollutants and cardiovascular disease: mechanisms and consequences of exposure. American Heart Journal 2014; 168(8):812-22.
Cosselman KE, Navas-Acien A, Kaufman JD. Environmental factors in cardiovascular disease. Nature Reviews Cardiology 2015; 12:627–42.
Natalia V. Solenkova, Jonathan D. Newman, Jeffrey SB, George T, Judith SH, Gervasio AL. Metal pollutants and cardiovascular disease: Mechanisms and consequences of exposure. American Heart Journal 2014; 168(6): 812-22.
Marilena Kampa, Elias Castanas. Human health effects of air pollution. Environmental Pollution 2008; 151(2): 362-367.
Aruni Bhatnagar. Cardiovascular pathophysiology of environmental pollutants. American Journal of Physiology-Heart and Circulatory Physiology 2004; 286: H479–H485.
Levy D, Wilson P. Atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease: an epidemiological perspective. In: Topol EP (ed), Comprehensive Cardiovascular Medicine, edited by, PA: Lippincott-Raven, 1998, 27–43.
Murray CJL, Lopez AD. The Global Burden of Disease: A Comprehensive Assessment of Mortality and Disability from Diseases, Injuries, and Risk Factors in 1990 and Projected to 2020. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1996.
Beckman JA, Creager MA, Libby P. Diabetes and atherosclerosis: epidemiology, pathophysiology and management. JAMA 2002; 287(19): 2570–2581.
Heller RF, Chinn S, Tunstall Pedoe HD, Rose G. How well can we predict coronary heart disease? Findings in the United Kingdom Heart Disease Prevention Project. The BMJ 1984; 288(6424): 1409–1411.
Hennekens C. Increasing burden of cardiovascular disease: current knowledge and future directions for research on risk factors. Circulation 1998; 97(11): 1095–1102.
Hoek G, Brunekreef B, Fischer P, Van Wijnen J. The association between air pollution and heart failure, arrhythmia, embolism, thrombosis and other cardiovascular causes of death in a time series study. Epidemiology 2001; 12(3): 355–357.
Costa DL, Dreher KL. Bioavailable transition metals in particulate matter mediate cardiopulmonary injury in healthy and compromised animal models. Environmental Health Perspectives 1997; 105(Suppl 5): 1053–1060.
Goldsmith CA, Imrich A, Danaee H, Ning YY, Kobzik L. Analysis of air pollution particulate-mediated oxidant stress in alveolar macrophages. Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health 1998; 54(7): 529-545.
Jimenez LA, Thompson J, Brown DA, Rahman I, Antionicelli F, Duffin R, Drost EM, Hay RT, Donaldson K, MacNee W. Activation of NF-kB by PM10 occurs via an iron-mediated mechanism in the absence of IkB degradation. Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology 2000; 166(2): 101–110.
Knaapen AM, Shi T, Borm PJ, Schins RP. Soluble metals as well as the insoluble particle fraction are involved in cellular DNA damage induced by particulate matter. Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry 2002; 234(1): 317–326.
Prahalad AK, Inmon J, Dailey LA, Madden MC, Ghio AJ, Gallagher JE. Air pollution particles mediated oxidative DNA damage in a cell free system and in human airway epithelial cells in relation to particulate metal content and bioreactivity. Chemical research in Toxicology 2001; 14(7): 879–887.
Adamson IY, Prieditis H, Hedgecock C, Vincent R. Zinc is the toxic factor in the lung response to an atmospheric particulate sample. Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology 2000; 166(2): 111–119.
Carter JD, Ghio AJ, Samet JM, Devlin RB. Cytokine production by human airway epithelial cells after exposure to an air pollution particle is metal-dependent. Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology 1997; 146(2): 180–188.
Kodavanti UP, Hauser R, Christiani DC, Meng ZH, McGee J, Ledbetter A, Richards J, Costa DL. Pulmonary responses to oil fly ash particles in the rat differ by virtue of their specific soluble metals. Toxicological Sciences 1998; 43(2): 204–212.
Prieditis H, Adamson IY. Comparative pulmonary toxicity of various soluble metals found in urban population dusts. Experimental Lung Research 2002; 28(7): 563–576.
Wilson MR, Lightbody JH, Donaldson K, Sales J, Stone V. Interactions between ultrafine particles and transition metals in vivo and in vitro. Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology 2002; 184(3): 172–179.
Magari SR, Schwartz J, Williams PL, Hauser R, Smith TJ, Christiani DC. The association of particulate air metal concentrations with heart rate variability. Environmental Health Perspectives 2002; 110(9): 875–880.
Obone E, Chakrabarti SK, Bai C, Malick MA, Lamontagne L, and Subramanium KS. Toxicity and bioaccumulation of nickel sulfate in Sprague-Dawley rats following 13 weeks of subchronic exposure. Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health 1999; 57(6): 379–401.
Frustaci A, Magnavita N, Chimenti C, Caldarulo M, Sabbioni E, Pietra R, Cellini C, Possati GF, Maseri A. Marked elevation of myocardial trace elements in idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy compared withsecondary cardiac dysfunction. Journal of the American College of Cardiology 1999; 33(6): 1578–1583.
Carmignani M, Boscolo P, Artese L, Del Rosso G, Porcelli G, Felaco M, Volpe AR, Giuliano G. Renal mechanisms in the cardiovascular effects of chronic exposure to inorganic mercury in rats. British Journal of Industrial Medicine 1992; 49(4): 226–232.
Kadrabova J, Madaric A, Ginter E. The effect of ascorbic acid on cadmium accumulation in guinea pig tissues. Experientia 1992; 48(10): 989–991.
Wang CH, Jeng JS, Yip PK, Chen CL, Hsu LI, Hsueh YM, Chiou HY, Wu MM, Chen CJ. Biological gradient between long-term arsenic exposure and carotid atherosclerosis. Circulation 2002; 105(15): 1804–1809.
Satarug S, Baker JR, Urbenjapol S, Haswell-Elkins M, Reilly PE, Williams DJ, Moore MR. A global perspective on cadmium pollution and toxicity in non-occupationally exposed population. Toxicology Letters 2003; 137(1-2): 65–83.
Akahori F, Masaoka T, Arai S, Nomiyama K, Nomiyama H, Kobayashi K, Nomura Y, Suzuki T. A nine-year chronic toxicity study of cadmium in monkeys. II Effects of dietary cadmium on circulatory function, plasma cholesterol and triglyceride. Veterinary and Human Toxicology 1994; 36(4): 290–294.
Tomera JF, Harakal C. Multiple linear regression analysis of blood pressure, hypertrophy, calcium and cadmium in hypertensive and non-hypertensive states. Food and Chemical Toxicology 1997; 35(7): 713–718.
Nishijo M, Nakagawa H, Morikawa Y, Tabata M, Senma M, Miura K, Takahara H, Kawano S, Nishi M, Mizukoshi K. Mortality of inhabitants in an area polluted by cadmium: 15 year follow up. Occupational Environmental Medicine 1995; 52(3): 181–184.
García-Niño WR, Pedraza-Chaverrí J. Protective effect of curcumin against heavy metals-induced liver damage. Food and Chemical Toxicology 2014; 69: 182–201.
IUPAC. Heavy metals - a meanigless term? (IUPAC Technical Report). Pure and Applied Chemistry 2002; 74: 793–807.
Stummann T, Hareng L, Bremer S. Embryotoxicity hazard assessment of cadmium and arsenic compounds using embryonic stem cells. Toxicology 2008; 252(1-3): 118–122.
Jarup L. Hazards of heavy metal contamination. British Medical Bulletin 2003; 68: 167–182.
Eman MA, Gordon AF. Heavy Metal Poisoning and Cardiovascular Disease. Journal of Toxicology 2011;2011(2011): Article ID 870125.
Ahalya N, Ramachandra TV, Kanamad, RD. Biosorption of heavy metals. Research Journal of Chemistry and Environment 2003; 7(4): 71–79.
CDC. Fourth National report on human exposure to environmental chemicals. Department of Health and Human Services. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2009.
Nobuntou W, Parkpian P, Oanh NT, Noomhorm A, Delaune RD, Jugsujinda A. Lead distribution and its potential risk to the environment: lesson learned from environmental monitoring of abandon mine. Journal of Environmental Science and Health 2010; 45(13): 1702–1714.
Martinez-Zamudio R, Ha H. Environmental epigenetics in metal exposure. Epigenetics 2011; 6(7): 820–827.
Ziemacki G, Viviano G, Merli F. Heavy metals: sources and environmental presence. Annali dell'Istituto Superiore di Sanità 1989; 25(3): 531–536.
Jomova K, Valko M. Advances in metal-induced oxidative stress and human disease. Toxicology 2011; 283: 65–87.
Howard H. Human Health and heavy metals exposure In: Michael McCally (ed), Life Support: The Environment and Human Health, (2002) MIT press.
Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR). The priority list of hazardous substances. Atlanta (GA): U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service; 2011. pp. 18.
Mangan PD. Heavy Metals and Heart Attacks, Health and Fitness Rogue. Web: http://roguehealthandfitness.com/author/p-d-mangan/, accessed on 13-09-2016.
Heinz GH. Hormesis associated with a low dose of methylmercury injected into mallard eggs. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 2012; 62(1): 141-144.
David S, Aisling P. Effects of seasonality on xenobiotic and antioxidant defence mechanisms of bivalve mollusks. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part C 1999; 123(3): 193–199.
Stohs SJ, Bagchi D. Oxidative mechanisms in the toxicity of metal ions.Free Radical Biology & Medicine 1995; 18(2): 321-336. 64. Aust SD. Metal ions, oxygen radicals and tissue damage. Bibliotheca Nutritio Et Dieta 1989; 43: 266-277.
Minotti G, Aust SD. The role of iron in the initiation of lipid peroxidation. Chemistry and Physics of Lipids 1987; 44(2-4): 191-208.
Alleman MA, Koster JF, Wilson JHP, Edixhoven-Bosdijk A, Slee RG, Kross MJ, Eijk HGV. The involvement of iron and lipid peroxidation in the pathogenesis of HCB-induced porphyria. Biochemical Pharmacology 1985; 34(2): 161-166.
Ryan TP, Aust SD. The role of iron in oxygen-mediated toxicities. Critical reviews in toxicology 1992; 22(2):119-141.
Imlay JA, Chin SM, Linn S. Toxic DNA damage by hydrogen peroxide through the Fenton reaction in vivo and in vitro. Science1988; 240(4852): 640-642.
Halliwell B, Gutteridge JMC. Iron and free radical reactions: Two aspects of antioxidant protection. Trends Biochemical Sciences 1986; 11(9): 372-375.
Halliwell B, Gutteridge JMC. Role of free radicals and catalytic metal ions in human disease: An overview. Methods in Enzymology 1990; 186:1-85.
Viarengo A, Canesi L, Pertica M, Poli G, Moore MN, Orunesu M. Heavy metal effects on lipid peroxidation in the tissues of Mytilus galloprovincialis Lam. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology 1990; 97(1): 37–42.
Viarengo A, Nott JA. Mechanisms of heavy metal cation homeostasis in marine invertebrates. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology 1993; 104C: 355–72.
Flora SJ, Mittal M, Mehta A. Heavy metal induced oxidative stress &it’s possible reversal by chelation therapy. Indian Journal of Medical Research 2008; 128(4): 501–523.
Durackova Z. Some current insights into oxidative stress. Physiological Research 2010; 59(4): 459–469.
Tanikawa K, Torimura T. Studies on oxidative stress in liver diseases: important future trends in liver research. Medical Molecular Morphology 2006; 39(1): 22–27.
Vera-Ramirez L, Perez-Lopez P, Varela-Lopez A, Ramirez Tortosa M, Battino M, Quiles JL. Curcumin and liver disease. BioFactors 2013; 39(1): 88-100.
Saidi S, Azaza M, Windmolders P, Van Pelt J, El-Feki A. Cytotoxicity evaluation and antioxidant enzyme expression related to heavy metals found in tuna by-products meal: an in vitro study in human and rat liver cell lines. Experimental and Toxicologic Pathology 2013; 65(7-8): 1025-33.
Ercal N, Gurer-Orhan H, Aykin-Burns N. Toxic metals and oxidative stress part I: mechanisms involved in metal-induced oxidative damage. Current Topics in Medicinal Chemistry 2001; 1(6): 529–539.
Valko M, Morris H, Cronin M. Metals, toxicity and oxidative stress. Current Medicinal Chemistry 2005; 12(10): 1161–1208.
Valko M, Rhodes CJ, Moncol J, Izakovic M, Mazur M. Free radicals, metals and antioxidants in oxidative stress-induced cancer. Chemical-Biological Interactions 2006; 160(1):1–40.
Rubio V, Valverde M, Rojas E. Effects of atmospheric pollutants on the Nrf2 survival pathway. Environmental Science and Pollution Research 2017; 17(2): 369–382.
Kang KW, Ryu JH, Kim SG. The essential role of phosphatidylinositol 3- kinase and of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase activation in the antioxidant response element-mediated rGSTA2 induction by decreased glutathione in H4IIE hepatoma cells. Molecular Pharmacology 2000; 58(5): 1017–1025.
Yu R, Mandlekar S, Lei W, Fah, WE, Tan T, N KA. P38 mitogen-activated protein kinase negatively regulates the induction of phase II drug-metabolizing enzymes that detoxify carcinogens. The Journal of Biological chemistry2000; 275(4): 2322–2327.
Kong AN, Owuor E, Yu R, Hebbar V, Chen C, Hu R, Mandlekar S. Induction of xenobiotic enzymes by the MAP kinase pathway and the antioxidant or electrophile response element (ARE/EpRE). Drug Metabolism reviews 2001; 33(3-4): 255–271.
Huang HC, Nguyen T, Pickett CB. Phosphorylation of Nrf2 at Ser-40 by protein kinase C regulates antioxidant response element-mediated transcription. Journal Biological Chemistry 2002; 277(45): 42769–42774.
Dinkova-Kostova AT, Holtzclaw WD, Cole RN, Itoh K, Wakabayashi N, Katoh Y, Yamamoto M, Talalay P. Direct evidence that sulfhydryl groups of Keap1 are the sensors regulating induction of phase 2 enzymes that protect against carcinogens and oxidants. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 2002; 99(18): 11908–11913.
Kaspar JW, Niture SK, Jaiswal AK. Nrf 2:INrf2 (Keap1) signaling in oxidative stress. Free Radical Biology and Medicine 2009; 47(9): 1304–1309.
Kensler TW, Wakabayashi N, Biswal S. Cell survival responses to environmental stresses via the Keap1-Nrf2-ARE pathway. Annual Review of Pharmacology and Toxicology 2007; 47: 89–116.
Park JY, Seo YR. The protective role of Nrf2 in cadmium-induced DNA damage. Molecular & Cellualar Toxicology 2001; 7: 61–66.
Badman DG, Jaffe ER. Blood and air pollution: state of knowledge and research needs. Otolaryngology Head Neck Surgery 1996; 114(2): 205.
Riediker M, Cascio WE, Griggs TR, Herbst MC, Bromberg PA, Neas L, Williams RW, Devlin RB. Particulate matter exposure in cars is associated with cardiovascular effects in healthy young men. American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine 2004; 169(8): 934. 92. Vermylen J, Nemmar A, Nemery B, Hoylaerts MF. Ambient air pollution and acute myocardial infarction. Journal of Thrombosis and Haemostasis 2005; 3(9): 1955-61.
Huang YC, Ghio AJ. Vascular effects of ambient pollutant particles and metals. Current Vascular Pharmacology 2006; 4(3): 199-203.
Dalton TP, Kerzee JK, Wang B, Miller M, Dieter MZ, Lorenz JN, Shertzer HG, Nerbert DW, Puga A. Dioxin exposure is an environmental risk factor for ischemic heart disease. Cardiovascular Toxicology 2001; 1(4): 285-98.
Esteban E, Gervasio AL, Daniel BM, Robin B, Christine G, Yves R, Richard LN, Pamela O, Theodore R, Allan M, Richard N, Eldrin FL, Lauren L, Kerry LL. The Effect of an EDTA-based Chelation Regimen on Patients With Diabetes Mellitus and Prior Myocardial Infarction in the Trial to Assess Chelation Therapy (TACT).Circulation: Cardiovascular Quality and Outcomes 2014; 7(1): 15-24. 96. Navas-Acien A, Selvin E, Sharrett AR, Calderon-Aranda E, Silbergeld E, Guallar E. Lead, cadmium, smoking, and increased risk of peripheral arterial disease. Circulation 2004; 109(25): 3196-201. 97. Nash D, Magder L, Lustberg M, Sherwin RW, Rubin RJ, Kaufmann RB, Silbergeld EK. Blood lead, blood pressure, and hypertension in perimenopausal and postmenopausal women. JAMA 2003; 289(12): 1523-32. 98. Weisskopf MG, Jain N, Nie H, Sparrow D, Vokonas P, Schwartz J, Hu H. A prospective study of bone leads concentration and death from all causes, cardiovascular diseases, and cancer in the Department of Veterans Affairs Normative Aging Study. Circulation 2009; 120(12): 1056-64.
Lustberg M, Silbergeld E. Blood lead levels and mortality. Archives Internal Medicine 2002; 162(21): 2443-9. 100. Menke A, Muntner P, Batuman V, Silbergeld EK, Guallar E. Blood lead below 0.48 micromol/L (10 microg/dL) and mortality among US adults. Circulation 2006; 114(13): 1388-94.
Pirkle JL, Schwartz J, Landis JR, Harlan WR. The relationship between blood lead levels and blood pressure and its cardiovascular risk implications. American Journal of Epidemiology 1985; 121(2): 246-58.
Harlan WR, Landis JR, Schmouder RL, Goldstein NG, Harlan LC. Blood lead and blood pressure. Relationship in the adolescent and adult US population. JAMA 1985; 253(4): 530-4.
Stohs SJ, Bagchi D. Oxidative mechanisms in the toxicity of metal ions. Free Radical Biology and Medicine 1995; 18(2): 321-36.
Revis NW, Zinsmeister AR, Bull R. Atherosclerosis and hypertension induction by lead and cadmium ions: an effect prevented by calcium ion. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America1981; 78(10): 6494-8.
Aalbers TG, Houtman JP. Relationships between trace elements and atherosclerosis. Science of the Total Environment 1985; 43(3): 255-83.
Voors AW, Shuman MS, Johnson WD. Additive statistical effects of cadmium and lead on heart-related disease in a North Carolina autopsy series. Archives of Environmental Health 1982; 37(2):98-102. 107. Li WF, Pan MH, Chung MC, Ho CK, Chuang HY. Lead exposure is associated with decreased serum paraoxonase 1 (PON1) activity and genotypes. Environmental Health Perspectives 2006; 114(8): 1233-6. 108. Peters JL, Kubzansky LD, Ikeda A, Shona CF, David S, Marc GW,Robert OW, Pantel V, Howard H, Joel S. Lead concentrations in relation to multiple biomarkers of cardiovascular disease: the Normative Aging Study. Environmental Health Perspectives 2012; 120(3): 361-366.
Skoczynska A, Smolik R, Jelen M. Lipid abnormalities in rats given small doses of lead. Archives of Toxicology 1993; 67(3):200-4.
Agency for Toxic Substances & Disease Registry. Priority list of hazardous substances. Web: https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/SPL/index.html. Accessed on March 13, 2016. 111. Solenkova NV, Newman JD, Berger JS, Thurston G, Hochman JS, Lamas GA.Metal pollutants and cardiovascular disease: mechanisms and consequences of exposure. American Heart journal 2014; 168: 812–22. 112. Sabzmakan L, Mohammadi E, Morowatisharifabad MA, Afaghi A, Naseri MH, Mirzaei M. Environmental Determinants of Cardiovascular Diseases Risk Factors: A Qualitative Directed Content Analysis. Iranian Red Crescent Medical Journal 2014 May; 16(5): e11573. 113. Navas-Acien A, Guallar E, Silbergeld EK, Stephen JR. Lead exposure and cardiovascular disease - a systematic review. Environmental Health Perspectives 2000; 115 (3):472–82. 114. Muntner P, Menke A, DeSalvo KB, Rabito FA, Batuman V. Continued decline in blood lead levels among adults in the United States: the National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys. Archives of Internal Medicine 2005; 165(18): 2155-61. 115. Nikolaos P. Cardiovascular Diseases: Genetic Susceptibility, Environmental Factors and their Interaction. Elsevier, USA, 2016.
Navas-Acien A, Schwartz BS, Rothenberg SJ, Silbergeld EK, Guallar E. Bone lead levels and blood pressure endpoints: a meta-analysis. Epidemiology 2008; 19(3): 496–504.
Vaziri ND, Khan M. Interplay of reactive oxygen species and nitric oxide in the pathogenesis of experimental lead-induced hypertension. Clinical and Experimental Pharmacology Physiology 2007; 34(9): 920–5. 118. Hanna CW, Bloom MS, Robinson WP, Kim D, Parsons PJ, vom Saal FS, Taylor JA, Steuerwald AJ, Fujimoto VY. DNA methylation changes in whole blood are associated with exposure to the environmental contaminants, mercury, lead, cadmium and bisphenol A, in women undergoing ovarian stimulation for IVF. Human Reproduction 2012; 27(5): 1401–10. 119. Menke A, Muntner P, Silbergeld EK, Platz EA, Guallar E. Cadmium levels in urine and mortality among U.S. adults. Environmental Health Perspectives 2009; 117(2):190–6.
Tellez-Plaza M, Navas-Acien A, Menke A, Crainiceanu CM, Pastor-Barriuso R, Guallar E. Cadmium exposure and all-cause and cardiovascular mortality in the U.S. general population. Environmental Health Perspectives 2012; 120:1017–22. 121. Tellez-Plaza M, Guallar E, Fabsitz RR, Howard BV, Umans JG, Francesconi KA, Goessler W, Devereux RB, Navas-Acien A. Cadmium exposure and incident peripheral arterial disease. Circulation: Cardiovascular Qualityand Outcomes 2013; 6(6): 626-33. 122. Tellez-Plaza M, Guallar E, Howard BV, Umans JG, Francesconi KA, Goessler W, Silbergeld EK, Devereux RB, Navas-Acien A. Cadmium exposure and incident cardiovascular disease. Epidemiology 2013; 24(3):421–9.
Tellez-Plaza M, Jones MR, Dominguez- Lucas A, Guallar E, Navas-Acien A. Cadmium exposure and clinical cardiovascular disease: a systematic review. Current Atherosclerosis Reports2013; 15(10):356.
Messner B, Knoflach M, Seubert A, Ritsch A, Pfaller K, Henderson B, Shen YH, Zeller I, Willeit J, Laufer G, Wick G, Kiechl S, Bernhard D. Cadmium is a novel and independent risk factor for early atherosclerosis mechanisms and in vivo relevance. Arteriosclerosis, Thrombosis, and Vascular Biology 2009; 29(9): 1392–8.
Messner B, Bernhard D. Cadmium and cardiovascular diseases: cell biology, pathophysiology, and epidemiological relevance. Biometals 2010; 23(5): 811–22. 126. Martín-Núñez E, Donate-Correa J, Muros-de-Fuentes M, Mora-Fernández C, Navarro-González JF. Implications of Klotho in vascular health and disease. World Journal of Cardiology (2014); 6(12): 1262–9.
Ruiz-Hernandez A, Kuo CC, Rentero- Garrido P, Tang WY, Redon J, Ordovas JM, Navas-Acien A, Tellez-Plaza M. Environmental chemicals and DNA methylation in adults: a systematic review of the epidemiologic evidence. Clinical Epigenetics 2015; 7: 55. 128. Lee BK, Schwartz BS, Stewart W, Ahn KD. Provocative chelation with DMSA and EDTA: evidence for differential access to lead storage sites. Occupational Environmental Medicine 1995; 52(1): 13-9.
Hancke C, Flytlie K. Benefits of EDTA chelation therapy in arteriosclerosis: a retrospective study of 470 patients. Journal of Advanced Medicine 1993; 6(3): 161-71.
Skerfving S, Bergdahl IA. Lead. In: Nordberg GF, Fowler BA, Nordberg M, Friberg LT, editors. Handbook on the Toxicology of Metals. Third Edition, Cambridge, MA: Academic Press, 2007, pp. 599-643.
Tellez-Plaza M, Navas-Acien A, Caldwell KL, Menke A, Muntner P, Guallar E. Reduction in cadmium exposure in the United States population, 1988–2008: the contribution of declining smoking rates. Environtal Health Perspectives 2012; 120:204–9. 132. Salonen JT, Seppanen K, Nyyssonen K, Korpela H, Kauhanen J, Kantola M, Tuomilehto J, Esterbauer H, Tatzber F, Salonen R. Intake of mercury from fish, lipid peroxidation, and the risk of myocardial infarction and coronary, cardiovascular, and any death in eastern Finnish men. Circulation 1995; 91(3):645-55.
Guallar E, Sanz-Gallardo MI, van't Veer P. Mercury, fish oils, and the risk of myocardial infarction. The New England Journal of Medicine 2002; 347(22): 1747-54.
Mozaffarian D, Shi P, Morris JS. Mercury exposure and risk of cardiovascular disease in two U.S. cohorts. The New England Journal of Medicine 2011; 364 (12):1116-25. 135. Salonen JT, Seppanen K, Lakka TA, Salonen R, Kaplan GA. Mercury accumulation and accelerated progression of carotid atherosclerosis: a population-based prospective 4-year follow-up study in men in eastern Finland. Atherosclerosis 2000; 148(2):265-73.
Valera B, Dewailly E, Poirier P. Environmental mercury exposure and blood pressure among Nunavik Inuit adults. Hypertension 2009; 54 (5):981-6.
Vupputuri S, Batuman V, Muntner P, Lydia AB John JL, Paul KW, Jiang H. Effect of blood pressure on early decline in kidney function among hypertensive men. Hypertension 2003; 42(6):1144-9.
Pedersen EB, Jorgensen ME, Pedersen MB, Siggaard C, Sørensen TB, Mulvad G, Hansen JC, Asmund G, Skjoldborg H. Relationship between mercury in blood and 24-h ambulatory blood pressure in Greenlanders and Danes. American Journal of Hypertension 2005; 18(5 Pt 1):612-8.
Kobal AB, Horvat M, Prezelj M, Briski AS, Krsnik M, Dizdarevic T, Mazej D, Falnoga I, Stibilj V, Arneric N, Kobal D, Osredkar J. The impact of long-term past exposure to elemental mercury on antioxidative capacity and lipid peroxidation in mercury miners. Journal of Trace Elements in Medicine and Biology 2004; 17(4): 261-74. 140. Moon KA, Guallar E, Umans JG, Devereux RB, Best LG, Francesconi KA, Goessler W, Pollak J, Silbergeld EK, Howard BV, Navas-Acien A. Association between exposure to low to moderate arsenic levels and incident cardiovascular disease: a prospective cohort study. Annals of Internal Medicine 2013; 159(10): 649-59.
Chen Y, Graziano JH, Parvez F. Arsenic exposure from drinking water and mortality from cardiovascular disease in Bangladesh: prospective cohort study. The BMJ 2011; 342:d2431.
Navas-Acien A, Silbergeld EK, Sharrett R, Calderon-Aranda E, Selvin E, Guallar E. Metals in urine and peripheral arterial disease. Environmental Health Perspectives 2005; 113(2):164-9.
Engel RR, Smith AH. Arsenic in drinking water and mortality from vascular disease: an ecologic analysis in 30 counties in the United States. Archives of Environmental Health 1994; 49 (5):418-27. 144. Tseng CH, Chong CK, Chen CJ, Tai TY. Dose-response relationship between peripheral vascular disease and ingested inorganic arsenic among residents in black foot disease endemic villages in Taiwan. Atherosclerosis 1996; 120 (1-2):125-33.
Abhyankar LN, Jones MR, Guallar E, Navas-Acien A. Arsenic exposure and hypertension: a systematic review. Environmental Health Perspectives 2012; 120(4): 494-500.
Mazumder DN. Chronic arsenic toxicity and human health. The Indian Journal of Medical Research 2008; 128(4): 436-447.
Goyer RA. Lead toxicity: current concerns. Environmental Health Perspectives 1993; 100: 177-187. 148. Nawrot TS, Staessen JA, Roels HA, Munters E, Cuypers A, Richart T, Ruttens A, Smeets K, Clijsters H, Vangronsveld J. Cadmium exposure in the population: from health risks to strategies of prevention. Biometals 2010; 23(5): 769–782.
Dıez S. Human health effects of methylmercury exposure. Reviews of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 2009; 198: 111-132.
Ibrahim D, Froberg B, Wolf A, Rusyniak DE. Heavy metal poisoning: clinical presentations and pathophysiology. Clinics in Laboratory Medicine 2006; 26(1): 67–97.
IARC (International Agency for Research on Cancer), Monographs on the Evaluation of the Carcinogenic Risk of Chemicals to Humans: Arsenic and Arsenic Compounds (Group 1), vol.7, World Health Organization, Lyon, France, 1987, pp. 100-106.
Valko M, Morris H, Cronin MT. Metals, toxicity and oxidative stress. Current Medicinal Chemistry 2005; 12(10): 1161-1208.
ATSDR (Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry), CERCLA Priority List of Hazzardous Substances. Web: http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/cercla/05list.html/, accessed on 18-02-2018.
Kannel WB, Gordon T. Evaluation of cardiovascular risk in the elderly: the Framingham study. Bulletin of the New York Academy of Medicine 1978; 54(6): 573–591.
Wenger NK. Gender, coronary artery disease, and coronary bypass surgery. Annals of Internal Medicine 1990; 112(8): 557-558.
Marenberg ME, Risch N, Berkman LF, Floderus B, De Faire U. Genetic susceptibility to death from coronary heart disease in a study of twins. The New England Journal of Medicine 1994; 330(15): 1041–1046.
Kannel WB. Blood pressure as a cardiovascular risk factor: prevention and treatment. Journal of the American Medical Association 1996; 275(20): 1571-1576.
Yudkin JS, Blauth C, Drury P. Prevention and management of CVD in patients with diabetes mellitus: an evidence base. Diabetic Medicine 1996;13(4): S101-S121.
Reaven GM. Syndrome X: 6 years later.Journal of Internal Medicine 1994; 236(Suppl 736): 13-22.
Grundy SM. Small LDL, atherogenic dyslipidemia,and the metabolic syndrome. Circulation 1997; 95(1):1-4.
Rimm EB, Stampfer MJ, Giovannucci E, Ascherio A, Spiegelman D, Colditz GA, Willett WC. Body size and fat distribution as predictors of CHD among middle-aged and older US men. The American Journal of Epidemiology 1995; 141(12): 1117-1122.
Howard G, Wagenknecht LE, Burke GL, Diez-Roux A, Evans GW, McGovern P, Nieto FJ, Tell GS.Cigarette smoking and progression of atherosclerosis:the atherosclerosis risk in communities (ARIC) study.Journal of the American Medical Association 1998;279(2): 119-124.
Wannamethee SG, Shaper AG, Walker M.Changes in physical activity mortality, and incidence of CHD in older men. The Lancet 1998; 351(9116):1603-1608.
Appel LJ, Moore TJ, Obarzanek E, Vollmer WM, Svetkey LP, Sacks FM, Bray GA, Vogt TM, Cutler JA, Windhauser MM, Lin PH, Karanja N. A clinical trial of the effects of dietary patterns on blood pressure. The New England Journal of Medicine 1997; 336(16):1117-1124.
Clarke R, Frost C, Collins R, Appleby P, Peto R.Dietary lipids and blood cholesterol: quantitative metaanalysis of metabolic ward studies. The British Medical Journal 1997; 314(7074): 112-117.
Danesh J, Collins R, Peto R. Lipoprotein (a) and CHD. Meta-analysis of prospective studies. Circulation 2000; 102(10): 1082-1085.
Blake GJ, Ridker PM. Novel clinical markers of vascular wall inflammation. Circulation Research 2001;89(9): 763-771.
Beattie JH, Kwun IS. Is zinc deficiency a risk factor for atherosclerosis?. The British Journal of Nutrition 2004; 91(2): 177-181.
Brenneisen P, Steinbrenner H, Sies H. Selenium, oxidative stress, and health aspects. Molecular Aspects of Medicine 2005; 26(4-5): 268-298.
Hummel M, Standl E, Schnell O. Chromium in metabolic and cardiovascular disease. Hormone and Metabolic Research 2007; 39(10): 743-751.
Uriu-Adams JY, Keen CL. Copper, oxidative stress, and human health. Molecular Aspects of Medicine 2005; 26(4-5): 268-298.
Gallagher CM, Meliker JR. Blood and urine cadmium, blood pressure, and hypertension: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Environmental Health Perspectives 2010; 118(12): 1676-1684.
Kazuko Y, Eric BR, Steven Morris J, Vickie LS, Chung-cheng H, Donna S, Meir JS, Walter CW. Mercury and the risk of coronary heart disease in men. The New England Journal of Medicine 2002;347(22): 1755-60.
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.
Copyright © Author(s) retain the copyright of this article.
.